To avoid the evidence for the resurrection and its implications, skeptics have come up with several alternative hypotheses and theories to explain away the data that supports Jesus being bodily raised from the dead. Because virtually all scholars, Christian and non-Christian, believe that the disciples really saw the risen Jesus[1], skeptics must come up with good reasons to explain why this happened. Another theory skeptics raise suggests that Jesus somehow survived his crucifixion. This is also popularly known as the “swoon theory.”
The Claim
The skeptic who holds this view will say something like this: Jesus was never really resurrected because he never really died. Rather, after being crucified, Jesus slipped into an unconscious state and while lying in the tomb he awoke, then rolled the stone away and somehow escaped the guards.
While this idea has been around for a long time, the swoon theory became semi-popular in the mid-1960’s by Hugh Schonfield.[2] However, there’s a reason why no scholar takes this theory as a viable option today. Regarding this theory, New Testament scholar Craig Blomberg says,
“The obvious, multiple fallacies for anyone familiar with the New Testament accounts are too glaring and numerous even to bother mentioning them here.”[3]
There are indeed many problems with this idea, but we will take some brief time to look at them. But before we do, let’s start by reviewing a brief history of crucifixion to better understand what we’re dealing with. We will then examine what Jesus went through and whether he could have survived.
Crucifixion in the Ancient World
Crucifixion, also known as suspension, had been used among several barbaric nations for centuries. It is believed to have first been developed by the Persians around the sixth century B.C., and eventually made its way to the Romans.[4] Our English word excruciating is derived from crucifixion which means “from the cross.” There were several different forms of crucifixion as reported among numerous ancient historians. Renowned theologian Martin Hengel says,
“Crucifixion was a punishment in which the caprice and sadism of the executioners were given full rein. All attempts to give a perfect description of the crucifixion in archaeological terms are therefore in vain; there were too many different possibilities for the executioner.”[5]
The Romans primarily used crucifixion as a deterrent to intimidate their enemies and was typically reserved for the lowest class of non-Roman citizens.[6] Historian Richard Horsley says it was
“designed to terrorize subject peoples into submission. It was the most brutal mode of execution in antiquity.”[7]
The ancient Roman historian Josephus who lived in the first century and witnessed crucifixions firsthand said that it was “the most miserable of deaths” (Josephus, War of the Jews, 7.203). Victims would be hung naked for public display, and after dying, they would often be denied burials. Their corpses were left for the birds and wild animals to consume, sometimes while they were still alive.[8]
Augustine of Hippo, writing in the late fourth century and from a Roman province, is thought to have preserved an accurate account of Roman crucifixion, saying,
“The crucified, suspended on the wood of a cross, and attached to the wood with nails in their hands and feet, are executed by means of an extended death. Indeed to be crucified is not to be killed; for one lived for a long time on a cross, not because a longer life was chosen, but because the death itself was prolonged, lest the pain be finished quicker.”[9]
Because of several ancient sources outside of the Bible, we know what crucifixion entailed and that the historical details pertaining to Jesus’ crucifixion reflect those accounts. Now that we have a better understanding of the history behind crucifixion, let’s see what Jesus endured before his own.
Suffering Before the Cross
Once you evaluate what Jesus went through before the cross, you will have a better understanding of why the theory of Jesus surviving it is literally impossible. Before Jesus was arrested, we see that he was under extreme mental anguish as he sweat “great drops of blood” as reported by the physician Luke (Luke 22:42-44).
Medical professionals have identified this condition as hematidrosis which can occur in individuals undergoing severe emotional distress. Basically, there is hemorrhage of the vessels into the sweat glands which squeezes out onto the skin.[10]
Jesus went on to most likely experience sleep deprivation due to numerous successive interrogations which began at 1:00am and ended after daybreak,[11] then was beaten by the guards before the Sanhedrin (Jewish council that sentenced him to death).
Jesus would then experience flogging/scourging. Flogging was a method of punishment commonly used in the first century for severely beating criminals and was typically reserved for non-Roman citizens. Scholars James D.G. Dunn and John Rogerson say that
“the scourging administered to Jesus was a common practice to make the crucified person die sooner.”[12]
This isn’t just recorded in the Gospels (which still serve as historically reliable documents);[13] the description of Jesus’ flogging is similar to those contained in the ancient nonbiblical sources we have.
For example, as historian Gregory Sterling points out, the writings of first century Philo of Alexandria provides us insight to the historical backdrop of the Gospels, helping to substantiate historical details in the Gospels relating to Jesus’ scourging (Matt. 27:26; Mark 15:15; John 19:1).[14] Philo tells us that certain victims were
“led away, scourged, tortured on the wheel, and after all these abuses— however much their bodies were able to endure— the ultimate and remaining punishment was a cross” (Philo, Against Flaccus, 72 AD)[15]
Scholar Andrea Nicolotti references another ancient nonbiblical source and explains,
“Unlike Jewish law, which had a maximum of forty lashes, Roman law did not provide for limits. Flavius Josephus offers accounts of flagellations carried out in Palestine where the strokes were delivered with such strength that they exposed the victim’s innards. He also confirms that scourging was a prelude to crucifixion.”[16]
The instrument used for flogging was often a whip, consisting of strands that were weighted by pieces of bone or metal fragments. Surgeon and scientist Thomas Miller has provided a relatively recent medical analysis of what most likely occurred from the scourging Jesus received, saying,
“Not infrequently, the torn tissues would extend to the level of the muscles. The net effect of this severe wounding would be horrendous pain and considerable blood loss involving substantial areas of the back, buttocks, and legs. If the blood loss was excessive, as it commonly was, the adverse effect on the remaining blood available in the victim’s body to adequately perfuse the vital organs could be considerable. This condition medically is called ‘hemorrhagic shock.’”[17]
After the scourging, a crown of thorns, probably woven from a strong, local thorn plant who some believe to be Euphorbia milii, was placed on the head of Jesus by the Roman soldiers (Mark 15:17; Matt. 27:29; John 19:2,5). It’s safe to assume they were not gentle during the process, either.
This was a tool of mockery[18] along with the purple robe and scepter used to ridicule Jesus as they hailed him “King of the Jews” (Matt. 27:29). These thorns would severely damage the scalp and cause excessive bleeding. If you’ve ever been hit in the head, you are aware of how easy the scalp bleeds due to the proximity of the blood vessels being closer to the surface.
After the trial ended and Pilate gave Jesus over to the crowd and Jewish leaders to be crucified, the robe—which would have been drying and adhered to the open wounds on Jesus’ back—was then stripped from him. This would certainly cause more bleeding.
Not to mention, Jesus would be completely exposed naked as a form of humiliation.[19] This was embarrassing enough for pagans who were crucified, let alone Jews, who took their modesty extremely seriously due to their religious customs.
The Cross
It was now time for Jesus to walk to Calvary or Golgotha (Place of the Skull) which could have been approximately a half mile. Historian John Granger Cook explains that victims had to carry the crossbar or patibulum (the horizontal beam that their hands would be nailed to) while the crux (vertical beam/pole) was already in place.[20]
Wood was scarce in ancient Rome and these stationary vertical poles could be used repeatedly. The patibulum weighed around 75-125 pounds which is difficult enough for a physically healthy person to carry.
Ancient writers such as Artemidorus and Plautus mention victim’s hands and feet being nailed to crosses, and thus Cook and other historians confirm that “ropes or nails (or perhaps both) could be used to fix the criminals to their crosses.”[21]
Over and over again, ancient sources outside of the New Testament agree with the accounts written inside the New Testament, demonstrating the reliability of what is being reported. But remember, even if we didn’t have these additional sources, it would in no way impact the truthfulness of what the New Testament writers are saying. This extra historical information is just icing on the cake.
Next, Jesus’ hands would be nailed to the crossbar. These nails were approximately 5-7 inches in length with the square-base being about 3/8 inches in diameter. The Greek word used for “hand” (cheir) in the New Testament included the wrist.
This is most likely was the location where they would place the nail to hold the weight of the victim’s body without breaking any bones, meaning that Jesus’ hands were still pierced. However, medically speaking, if placed in the right location, a nail could also penetrate the hand without breaking any bones while supporting the full body weight. [22] Miller says,
“Any nail entering the upper hand adjacent to the muscle mass at the base of the thumb would be at a satisfactory entrance point to support a hanging body without this adverse tearing effect.”[23]
Miller explains that this would render Jesus’ hands useless and would impair any kind of gripping ability due to severe nerve damage.[24]
Next, Jesus’ feet would be nailed to the crux or the vertical pole that was fixed into the ground. Due to the damage of the medial plantar nerves in his feet, this would significantly impair his ability to walk if he somehow survived the cross in addition to the unbearable pain associated with it.[25]
Cause of Death
It has been postulated that the cause of death that victims of crucifixion experienced were due primarily to asphyxiation, meaning that a lack of oxygen was supplied to the body and disrupted lung function, “resulting in multiple organ dysfunction, unconsciousness, and death.”[26] Dr. Miller believes this was a significant contributing factor to Jesus’ death.
Miller says that the amount of blood and hemoglobin that Jesus lost during his flogging prevented his body from properly functioning, and his shallow breathing on the cross aided to a greater lack of oxygen for his body.
Ultimately, Miller concludes the most likely cause for Jesus’ death was “cardiorespiratory arrest from a fatal cardiac arrhythmia, which simply means that the heart and lungs failed to function any longer due to inadequate oxygenation, hypercarbia, and the associated acidosis.”[27]
The asphyxiation hypothesis claimed that every time a crucified person needed to take a breath, they had to push off their nailed feet to straighten themselves to do so. Muscle cramps combined with extreme pain and exhaustion would minimize the number of times one would push to receive a breath of air to properly oxygenate their body. Carbon dioxide would build up in their blood because it wasn’t breathed out sufficiently.[28]
However, world-renowned medical examiner Frederick Zugibe argues that this assumption is based on faulty experiments of volunteers who were not positioned in the same way that Jesus was on the cross.
Zugibe reconstructed his own mock-tests and noted, “The results of these studies overwhelmingly disprove the asphyxiation theory as the cause of death…. There was no difficulty breathing in the position on the cross,” and it was “virtually impossible to straighten the body from the sagging position” because the arms were too far extended.[29]
Zugibe points out that even if Jesus were able to straighten himself to breath, he would have to do so 360 times within a 6-hour span to average only 1 breath per minute (normal rate is 12 to 16 breaths per minute), and this would be too unbearable for any human body to endure, especially one beaten and exhausted to the extent of Jesus’ (see footnote to read his summary as to why he makes this claim).[30]
But what about Roman soldiers who broke the legs of crucified victims? Some suggest that this was to prevent the person from straightening themselves up to breathe, and hence implies asphyxiation was the eventual cause of death.
Zugibe reminds us that breaking of the legs was a common form of punishment to hasten the deaths of victims, that it ensured they couldn’t crawl away if they somehow got off the cross, and that there is evidence of victims having their legs broke in other forms of punishment apart from crucifixion.[31]
Another theory is that Jesus’ heart ruptured due to a heart attack; however, Zugibe reminds us that Jesus was too young, and if he did, there would need to be at least a 24 hour period after his heart attack to soften the heart muscle enough to allow a rupture.[32]
Zugibe states, “The ruptured heart hypothesis as the cause of Jesus’ death must be discarded and relegated to the archives of unfounded hypotheses because it is totally unsound from a medical and scientific point of view.”[33]
Zugibe is confident that the cause of Jesus’ death was due to shock.[34] He says that if he were to give his official Medical Examiner diagnosis of Jesus’ cause of death, his death certificate would read as follows:
“Cause of Death: Cardiac and respiratory arrest, due to hypovolemic and traumatic shock, due to crucifixion.”[35]
Although we will never really know the precise cause of Jesus’ death, based on medical examinations and extensive research by various physicians like Miller and Zugibe, we can be certain that Jesus died on the cross.
Finally, when Jesus was examined by the Roman soldiers to see if he had died on the cross, one of them pierced his side with a spear. This is why blood and water came out. Despite there being several theories as to why this happened, Miller and others believe that the pericardium and right atrium of the heart was penetrated.[36] This would ensure no chance for survival.
The purpose of crucifixion was to inflict as much pain as possible while keeping the victim alive to endure their suffering. Some would die in a few hours while others lasted for several days. No doubt, due to the physical abuse and brutal flogging that Jesus received prior to his crucifixion, his body only survived on the cross for approximately 6 hours or less (9am – 3pm).
Could Jesus Have Survived?
It was physically impossible for Jesus to survive his crucifixion. Historians are so confident in this fact, that it is unanimously recognized among contemporary scholars that Jesus died by crucifixion.[37]
However, only the hyper-skeptics have tried arguing the notion that Jesus didn’t really die. Some have appealed to the ancient Roman historian Josephus who records that three of his own friends were crucified, and that he was granted approval to remove their bodies by the Roman general Titus.[38] And because one out of the three victims survived, they believe that Jesus could have survived.
However, unlike the historical data surrounding Jesus’ death and burial, we know very little about this incident. We are only told that one friend survives and the other two die after receiving the best medical care available (Jospehus, Life, 75).[39]
We don’t know if the survivor received flogging beforehand, and if so, to what extent. We don’t know if his hands and feet were tied or pierced with nails. We don’t know how long he was on the cross for. We do know that his heart wasn’t pierced by a Roman spear. Moreover, we aren’t told what his life was like afterwards, nor the condition that his body was in.
Swoon Theory Utterly Fails
Although we know it was not humanly possible for Jesus to survive, let’s suppose that he did for just a moment. What if he somehow regained consciousness in the tomb? If this is the case, given Jesus’ terrible and weakened physical condition, how in the world could he have the strength to roll back the tomb?
Remember, his hands and feet were utterly useless based on the damage they received. He wouldn’t be able to move the stone, fight off the guards, or run away from the scene. This is an absolutely absurd thing to envision.
Finally, when Jesus was seen again by his disciples, Jesus never would have persuaded them that he was truly the Messiah in a glorified new body. Rather, they would see a defeated, barely recognizable figure that would not convince them that he was Son of God or the mighty deliverer of the Israelites as they expected. No, Jesus didn’t survive his crucifixion and to suggest otherwise is wild speculation contrary to all the evidence; therefore, the swoon theory fails. Thanks for reading.
Blessings,
Andrew Drinkard
[1] In my previous articles for the evidence of Jesus’ resurrection, you will see several cited sources from various critical scholars who concede this point. Here’s a couple for a quick reference: Prominent Jewish (non-Christian) historian Paula Fredricksen said this about the disciples believing they saw the risen Jesus: “I know in their own terms what they saw was the raised Jesus. That’s what they say, and then all the historic evidence we have afterwards attest to their conviction that that’s what they saw. I’m not saying that they really did see the raised Jesus. I wasn’t there. I don’t know what they saw. But I do know that as a historian that they must have seen something.” Atheist New Testament scholar Gerd Lüdemann, says “It may be taken as historically certain that Peter and the disciples had experiences after Jesus’ death in which Jesus appeared to them as the risen Christ.” E. P. Sanders says, “That Jesus’ followers (and later Paul) had resurrection experiences is, in my judgement, a fact. What the reality was that gave rise to the experiences I do not know.” See Sanders, The Historical Figure of Jesus, 305. Dale Allison says, “I am sure that the disciples saw Jesus after his death.” See Allison, Resurrecting Jesus (2005), 346.
[2] See Chapter 13, “He is not Here” in Hugh J. Schonfield, The Passover Plot: Speical 40th Anniversary Edition (NY: Disinformation Company, 2005), Google Books, Accessed May 20, 2021, https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=qsD6wod_ZfUC&oi=fnd&pg=PT6&dq=hugh+schonfield&ots=bMiD6vVWs3&sig=6_anhnUNjd2vNScTP3HDkXgQzFk#v=onepage&q&f=false. Schonfield says that Jesus was laid in the tomb, then awakened because of the cool-air and managed to escape, convincing his followers that he was the true Messiah.
[3] Carl Stecher and Craig L. Blomberg, Resurrection: Faith or Fact?: A Scholars’ Debate Between a Skeptic and a Christian (Chicago: Pitchstone Publishing, 2019) 127.
[4] See “Crucifixion as a ‘Barbaric’ Form of Execution of the Utmost Cruelty” in Martin Hengel, Crucifixion: In The Ancient World And The Folly Of The Message Of The Cross (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1977), 22. See “Crucifixion” in Frederick T. Zugibe, The Crucifixion of Jesus, Completely Revised and Expanded: A Forensic Inquiry (Providence: M. Evans & Company, 2005), 53.
[5] Martin Hengel, Crucifixion: In the Ancient World and the Folly of the Message of the Cross (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1977), 25.
[6] See Hengel, Crucifixion, 88.
[7] Richard A. Horsley, Jesus and the Politics of Roman Palestine (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2013), 156. Horsley cites Quintilian (35-95 AD) who tells us that the Romans did this for intimidation purposes; Horsley adds, “The Romans’ purpose in using this utterly dehumanizing form of execution was to intimidate their slaves and subjugated provincials into submission,” 157.
[8] See Horsley, Jesus and the Politics of Roman Palestine, 60.
[9] Augustine quoted in “Roman Procedure and the Gospels” in John Granger Cook, Crucifixion in the Mediterranean World (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2018), 426.
[10] See Thomas A. Miller, Did Jesus Really Rise from the Dead?: A Surgeon-Scientist Examines the Evidence (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2013), 45-46. Miller is a scientist and surgeon who is well qualified to speak on these medical issues. Moreover, he references a forensic pathologist, Frederick Zugibe, who has examined aspects of hematidrosis from other documented cases, and who has “written extensively on the medical aspects of the crucifixion,” 45.
[11] See Miller Did Jesus Really Rise from the Dead, 46.
[12] James D. G. Dunn and John Rogerson, eds. Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2003), 1960.
[13] For additional easy-read resources, see Peter J. Williams, Can We Trust the Gospels? (Wheaton: Crossway Publishing, 2018); Craig S. Keener, The IVP Bible Background Commentary: New Testament, 2nd ed (Downers Grove: Inver Varsity Press, 2014), Michael Licona, Why Are There Differences in the Gospels? (NY: Oxford University Press, 2017).
[14] Gregory E. Sterling, “Philo of Alexandria” in Dale C. Allison, Jr., John Dominic Crossan, and Amy-Jill Levine, eds. The Historical Jesus in Context. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006), 315-317.
[15] Philo in Sterling, “Philo of Alexandria,” (Cohn-Wendland 6:133-34), 320.
[16] Andrea Nicolotti, “What Do We Know About the Scouring of Jesus?,” Vol. VI, No. 12, The Ancient Near East Today, December 2018, Accessed May 20, 2021, https://www.asor.org/anetoday/2018/12/What-Do-We-Know-About-Scourging-Jesus/.
[17] Thomas A. Miller, Did Jesus Really Rise from the Dead?: A Surgeon-Scientist Examines the Evidence (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2013), 47.
[18] Although probably most scholars take the crown of thorns to be a literal instrument of torture, scholar, H. St. J. Hart, has provided an alternative view that I found intriguing. Hart suggests that Jesus’ crown could possibly have been a caricature of the “radiate crown” that Roman emperors often wore to display divine qualities as associated with Greek gods such as Helios (Sun god). These crowns are commonly seen on tetradrachms (ancient Greek coins) that date back to the first century when Jesus was crucified. Radiate crowns had long spikes made of date-palm trees, and their spikes stuck straight up/out from the head piece that was worn. Hart says, “It fits the context. For, on this view, when Pilate’s soldiers had finished the dressing up of their prisoner he [Jesus] wore a mock-royal robe of purple, he carried a mock-royal sceptre, and he was crowned with a mock-radiate crown” (74); see Hart, “The Crown of Thorns In John 19, 2—5.” The Journal of Theological Studies, New Series, 3, no. 1 (1952): 66-75. Accessed May 26, 2021. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23954059. Renowned historian Larry Hurtado said that he is personally “taken with the idea, and have been since I first read Hart’s article many years ago.” See Hurtado, “The ‘Thorny Crown,’” May 15, 2017, Accessed May 26, 2021, https://larryhurtado.wordpress.com/2017/05/15/the-thorny-crown/. Scholar Campbell Bonner seemed to support Hart’s idea as well; see Bonner, “The Crown of Thorns.” The Harvard Theological Review 46, no. 1 (1953): 47-48. Accessed May 26, 2021. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1508841. Very interesting.
[19] Jesus would be crucified naked as this was the common method used by the Romans to enhance the humiliation of the punishment; See “Roman Procedure and the Gospels” in John Granger Cook, Crucifixion in the Mediterranean World (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2018), 427.
[20] See Cook, Crucifixion in the Mediterranean World, 423-24.
[21] See Cook, Crucifixion in the Mediterranean World (2018), 7, 425. Cook references writings from Artemidorus who explains that the cross is T-shaped; Artemidorus states, “For a cross is made from posts and nails like a ship, and its mast is like a cross” (7), and “one who is about to be nailed to a stauros [cruciform or T-shaped cross] first carries it” (424). Cook also references Plautus who says, “I will give a talent to the person who will run to the cross, but on the condition that his feet and hands are double nailed” (424).
[22] See “The Location of the Hand Wound” in Frederick T. Zugibe, The Crucifixion of Jesus, Completely Revised and Expanded: A Forensic Inquiry (Providence: M. Evans & Company, 2005), 65-87; Zugibe concludes that his studies “fully validate the hypothesis and in addition demonstrate that the palms of the hands would hold weight up to at least 225 pounds (by extrapolation)” (87).
[23] Miller, Did Jesus Really Rise from the Dead, 52.
[24] Miller, Did Jesus Really Rise from the Dead, 53. Miller goes on to explain, “The median nerve serves two important functions. One is sensory, meaning that it allows sensations such as touch, temperature, and pain to be perceived from the skin enveloping most of the thumb and index and middle fingers and to a lesser extent some of the ring finger. The other is motor, meaning that it provides innervation to the thumb and index finger to enable them to perform flexion movements. Such innervation also enables the thumb to oppose itself to the other fingers of the hand so that a gripping function can be carried out. Without doubt, both functions were severely impaired as a result of nerve damage that occurred from the nailing. It is highly unlikely that Jesus would have had any gripping function in either hand, had he survived the crucifixion” (52).
[25] Miller, Did Jesus Really Rise from the Dead, 54.
[26] Miller, Did Jesus Really Rise from the Dead, 54.
[27] Miller, Did Jesus Really Rise from the Dead, 56.
[28] Miller, Did Jesus Really Rise from the Dead, 55.
[29] Frederick T. Zugibe, The Crucifixion of Jesus, Completely Revised and Expanded: A Forensic Inquiry (Providence: M. Evans & Company, 2005), 115.
[30] See Zugibe (2005), 116; he goes on to say, “Could a person in a state of traumatic and hypovolemic shock who had been beaten at the home of Caiphas, the high priest; undergone severe anxiety to the point of hematidrosis; been brutally scourged with a flagrum; suffered trigeminal neuralgia from the crowning with thorns; stumbled and fell for about a half mile, carrying a 50to 75-pound crosspiece part of the way; then who was nailed through the hands and feet with large spikelike nails through the median nerves and plantar nerves and suspended on a cross, repeatedly push and pull himself up against the spikelike nails in his swollen, exquisitely tender hands and feet in order to breathe over a period of several hours? I don’t think so!” (116).
[31] See “Breaking of the Legs” in Zugibe (2005), 101-102.
[32] See Zugibe (2005), 119.
[33] Zugibe (2005), 119; he reminds us that, “I would like to add that my opinions in this area of medicine are fortified by my background and experience in cardiology added to my forensic pathology credentials, which include previous Director of Cardiovascular Research with the U.S. Veterans Administration in Pittsburgh; Fellow of the American College of Cardiology; and author of two books, several book chapters, and about 28 scientific papers in cardiology” (119).
[34] Zugibe (2005), 120.
[35] Zugibe (2005), 124-125; he explains, “Hypovolemic shock (low volume shock) is shock marked by a significant fall in the blood volume due to hemorrhage or a loss of body fluids (diarrhea, vomiting, burns, etc.), causing a drop in blood pressure, constriction (pinching off) of the peripheral (outside) blood vessels, and an increase in heart rate as an attempt to compensate” (121). And “Traumatic Shock (injury shock) is shock resulting from a serious injury. This type of shock is usually classified under hypovolemic shock when significant hemorrhage occurs as a consequence of physical injury. However, it appears more prudent to discuss traumatic shock separately because it may also occur with severe pain, without significant hemorrhage. The presence of pain alone from a traumatic event stimulates certain nervous mechanisms of the brain, resulting in a drop in blood pressure and a reduction of blood flow to the tissues. Jesus suffered severe blood and fluid losses as well as excruciating pain” (122-123).
[36] Miller, Did Jesus Really Rise from the Dead, 58.
[37] John Dominic Crossan, the prominent skeptical scholar who doesn’t believe Jesus rose from the dead, notes, “Jesus’ death by crucifixion under Pontius Pilate is as sure as anything historical can ever be.” See John Dominic Crossan, Jesus: A Revolutionary Biography (NY: HarperCollins, 1994), 145.
[38] See James Tabor, Josephus’ References to Crucifixion, “The Jewish Roman World of Jesus,” Accessed June 28, 2021, https://pages.uncc.edu/james-tabor/archaeology-and-the-dead-sea-scrolls/josephus-references-to-crucifixion/.
[39] Jospehus, The Life of Flavius Josephus, 75, https://penelope.uchicago.edu/josephus/autobiog.html.
